Problemistics Notebook : Needs

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Needs

Definitions

Classifications

Functions

Related Concepts : Desire, Drive, Habit, Motive, Requirement, Tendency, Want

Classical Quotations

Definitions (^)

Henry A. Murray
[1938] Explorations in Personality, Oxford University Press, New York

"A need is a construct [a convenient fiction or hypothetical concept] which stands for a force [the psycho-chemical nature of which is unknown] in the brain region, a force which organizes perception, apperception, intellection, conation and action in such a way as to transform in a certain direction an existing, unsatisfying situation." (Chapter 2, p. 124)

Bronislaw Malinowski
[1941] A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays, The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1944

"We can define the concept of basic needs as the environmental and biological conditions which must be fulfilled for the survival of the individual and the group." (Chapter VIII)

"We can define the term 'human nature' by the fact that all men have to eat, they have to breathe, to sleep, to procreate and to eliminate waste matter from their organism wherever they live and whatever type of civilization they practice."

"By human nature therefore we mean the biological determinism which imposes on every civilization and on all individuals in it the carrying out of such bodily functions as breathing, sleep, rest, nutrition, excretion, and reproduction." (Chapter VIII)

Sidney M. Jourard
[1958] Personal Adjustment. An Approach through the Study of Healthy Personality, The Macmillan Company, New York

"A need is ... a judgment which a person makes concerning what he requires in order to attain some valued end." (p. 59)

Julius Gould & William L. Kolb, editors
[1964] A Dictionary of the Social Sciences, The Free Press, New York

"In psychology the term denotes whatever is required for the health and well-being of a person." "A wider use of this term is sometimes found in personality theory, where it refers to anything a person wants with sufficient consistency over time for this to be treated as a feature of his personality." (p. 462)

Peter Davies, editor
[1974] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Dell Publishing Co., New York

"Need: 1. A state in which something necessary or desirable is required or wanted; 2. A wish for something lacking or desired; 3. Necessity; obligation; 4. Poverty.

[1981] Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, Encyclopaedia Britannica, USA

"A physiological or psychological requirement for the maintenance of the homeostasis of an organism."

Manfred Max-Neef
[1989] Development and Human Needs, in Paul Ekins and Manfred Max-Neef, eds., Real-Life Economics, Routledge, London, 1992

"1. First, fundamental human needs are finite, few and classifiable;

2. Second, fundamental human needs are the same in all cultures and in all historical periods. What changes, both over time and through cultures, is the way or the means by which the needs are satisfied." (pp. 199-200)

"Whether a person belongs to a consumerist or to an ascetic society, his/her fundamental human needs are the same. What changes is his/her choice of the quantity and quality of satisfiers. In short, what is culturally determined are not the fundamental human needs [i.e. subsistence, protection, etc.], but the satisfiers [i.e. types of food, shelter, etc.] for those needs." (p. 200)

Classifications (^)

Bronislaw Malinowski
[1941] A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays, The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1944

Basic (biological) Needs & Cultural Responses

1. Metabolism : Commissariat (regulation)
2. Reproduction : Kinship
3. Bodily comforts : Shelter
4. Safety : Protection
5. Movement: Activities
6. Growth : Training
7. Health : Hygiene (Chapter X)

Ralph Linton
[1945] The Cultural Background of Personality, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., London, 1947

"It may be assumed that it is the needs of the individual which provide the motivations for his behavior and which are, through this, responsible for the operation of society and culture." (Chapter I, p. 4)

Physiological needs
food
sleep
escape from pain
sexual satisfaction

Psychic needs
emotional response from others
long-term security
novelty of experience

Gardner Murphy
[1947] Personality: A Biosocial Approach to Origins and Structure, Harper & Row, New York

Four inborn organic needs are assumed to be part of the biological nature of man’s personality. They are as follows:
1. visceral needs : food, water, air, etc.
2. activity needs : exploration and manipulation
3. sensory needs : perceptual clarity in color, tone, rhythm and orientation
4. preservation needs : avoidance of pain, death, threat, shocks, etc.

Abraham Maslow
[1954] Motivation and Personality, Harper & Row, New York, Second Edition 1970

- The physiological needs (hunger, thirst, sex, etc.)
- The safety needs (security, stability, dependency, protection, freedom from fear, from anxiety and chaos; need for structure, order, law, limits)
- The belonginess and love needs (freedom from loneliness, ostracism, rejection, friendlessness, rootlessness)
- The esteem needs (self esteem : desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for mastery and competence, for confidence in the face of the world and for independence and freedom; esteem of others: desire for reputation or prestige, status, fame and glory, dominance, recognition, attention, importance, dignity, or appreciation)
- The self-actualization need : desire for self-fulfillment, namely the tendency for the human being to actualize his/her potentialities.

Preconditions for Basic Needs Satisfaction :
- freedom to speak;
- freedom to do what one wishes so long as no harm is done to others;
- freedom to express oneself;
- freedom to investigate and seek for information;
- freedom to defend oneself;
- justice, fairness, honesty, orderliness in the group.

Erich Fromm
[1956] The Sane Society, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1968

relatedness vs. narcissismus (love)
creativeness vs. destructiveness (purposeful transcendence)
brotherliness vs. incest (rootedness)
individuality vs. herd conformity (sense of identity)
reason vs. irrationality (frame of orientation and devotion)

Sidney M. Jourard
[1958] Personal Adjustment. An Approach through the Study of Healthy Personality, The Macmillan Company, New York

- Healthy needs. "Healthy needs contribute to a person’s continued growth toward self-actualization. Whatever a person wants or needs in order more fully to develop his potential individuality must be regarded as a healthy need." (p. 51)
- Unhealthy needs. "A need is unhealthy when its gratification does not contribute to the further growth of the person, when it actually prevents further growth." (p. 53)

Frederick Herzberg
[1968] Work and the Nature of Man, Crosby Lockwood Staples, London 1974

"... the human animal has two categories of needs. One set ... is centered on the avoidance of loss of life, hunger, pain, sexual deprivation and on other primary drives, in addition to the infinite varieties of learned fears that become attached to these basic drives. The other segment of man’s nature ... is man’s compelling urge to realize his own potentiality by continuous psychological growth." (Chapter 4 : The Basic Needs of Man - p. 56)

Mario Kamenetzky
[1992] The Economics of the Satisfaction of Needs, in Paul Ekins & Manfred Max-Neef, Real-Life Economics, London

- Biological needs : a) energy-renewing requirements : nutrition, sleep, excretion; b) energy-balancing requirements : motion, sexual activity.
- Bio-psychological needs : clothing, shelter, care and protection of body and mind.
- Psychological needs : knowledge, dialogue with the spirit, recreation.
- Socio-cultural needs : intellectual, emotional and physical communications, participation, autonomy.
(Part II, Section 7 : Human Needs and Aspirations).

Functions (^)

Bronislaw Malinowski
[1941] A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays, The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1944

"Derived Needs (cultural imperatives) & Cultural Responses:
1. Imperative: The cultural apparatus of implements and consumer’s goods must be produced, used, maintained and replaced by new production. Response: Economics.
2. Imperative: Human behavior as regards its technical, customarily, legal, or moral prescription must be codified, regulated in action and sanction. Response: Social control.
3. Imperative: The human material by which every institution is maintained must be renewed, formed, drilled, and provided with full knowledge of tribal tradition. Response: Education.
4. Imperative: Authority within each institution must be defined, equipped with powers, and endowed with means of forceful execution of its orders. Response: Political organization." (Chapter XI)

Related Concepts (^)

Desire

William McDougall
[1923] An Outline of Psychology, Methuen & Co., London

"Desire in the widest sense may be defined as an impulse directed toward a remote object." "In the narrowest and strictest sense, desire denotes our state when imagination of an object evokes in us an impulse to action, yet action is suspended or prevented by some physical or moral or intellectual difficulty." (p. 207)

[1971] Cassell’s Modern Guide to Synonyms & Related Words, London, 1984

"Desire is now the preferred word for suggesting sexual feeling, but it can also refer to any feeling of wanting or needing something."

[1974] The American Heritage Dictionary, Dell Publishing Co., New York

"Desire: 1. A wish, longing, or craving; 2. A request; 3. Something longed for; 4. Sexual appetite."

Drive

[1985] Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. IV

"In psychology an urgent basic need pressing for satisfaction, usually rooted in some physiological tension, deficiency, or imbalance (e.g. hunger and thirst) and impelling the organism to action. Some researchers have used the term need synonymously, although others distinguish between need as the deprived state and drive as its psychological manifestation (e.g. tension and restless or goal directed activity). Psychologists also distinguish between drives that are innate and directly related to basic physiological needs (e.g. food, air, and water) and drives that are learned (e.g. drug addiction)."

Habit

William Graham Sumner
[1906] Folkways, The New American Library, New York 1960

"... from the first act by which men try to satisfy needs, each act stands by itself, and looks no further than the immediate satisfaction. From recurrent needs arise habits for the individual and customs for the group, but these results are consequences which were never conscious and never foreseen or intended." (p. 19)

Motive

Fremont E. Kast & James E. Rosenzweig
[1970] Organization and Management, McGraw-Hill, Third Edition 1979

"A motive is what prompts a person to act in a certain way or at least develop a propensity for specific behavior." (p. 244)

"People are motivated to expend effort if they believe that there is a reasonable probability that their effort will accomplish a desired outcome and that the outcome will be followed by intrinsic and/or extrinsic rewards that lead to satisfaction." (p. 246)

[1971] Cassell’s Modern Guide to Synonyms & Related Words, London, 1984

"Motive connotes some impulse within a person - such as love, hate, revenge, or ambition - that impels him to act with a strong sense of purpose."

[1974] The American Heritage Dictionary, Dell Publishing Co., New York

"Motive: 1. An impulse acting as an incitement to action."

Requirement

Keith Hanson
[1969] in, Geoffrey Broadbent & Anthony Ward eds., Design Methods in Architecture, Architectural Association Paper nº 14, Lund Humphries, London

"A requirement is a situation that must be present otherwise an observable human or social need would go unsatisfied. Most requirements are dependent in their solutions on other requirements. Any two requirements that would either help or hinder one another in solution therefore interact and need to be thought of together if a satisfactory solution is to be found for both." (p. 37)

Tendency

Barry Poyner
[1969] in, Geoffrey Broadbent & Anthony Ward eds., Design Methods in Architecture, Architectural Association Paper nº 14, Lund Humphries, London

"If we accept the traditional concept of need, we have no way of telling if a need is true or false." "We don’t have this difficulty with a tendency. A tendency is a statement of what people are actively trying to do. It is a statement which is either true or false. Either people are trying to do it or they are not." (p. 32)

Want

Victor Papanek
[1971] Design for the Real World, Paladin, England, 1977

"Designing for the people’s needs rather than for their wants, or artificially created wants, is the only meaningful direction now." (p. 163)

[1974] The American Heritage Dictionary, Dell Publishing Co., New York

"Want: 1. The condition or quality of lacking a usual or necessary amount; 2. Pressing need; 3. Something needed; 4. A fault."
"To want: 1. To fail to have; lack; 2. To desire; wish for; 3. To need or require; 4a. To request the presence of; 4b. To seek with intent to capture."

Classical Quotations (^)

Henri David Thoreau
[1854] Walden, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1960

"By the words, necessary of life, I mean whatever, of all that man obtains by his own exertions, has been from the first, or from long use has become, so important to human life that few, if any, whether from savageness, or poverty, or philosophy, ever attempt to do without it." "The necessaries of life for man in this climate may, accurately enough, be distributed under the several heads of Food, Shelter, Clothing, and Fuel; for not till we have secured these are we prepared to entertain the true problems of life with freedom and a prospect of success." (p. 7)

Karl Marx
[1875] Critique of the Gotha Programme

"In a higher phase of communist society, after the enslaving subordination of individuals under division of labour, and therewith also the antithesis between mental and physical labour, has vanished; after labour, from a mere means of life, has itself become the prime necessity of life; after the productive forces have also increased with the all-round development of the individual, and all the springs of co-operative wealth flow more abundantly - only then can the narrow horizon of bourgeois right be fully left behind and society inscribe on its banners : from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs."

William Graham Sumner
[1906] Folkways. A Study of the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores and Morals, Mentor Books, New York 1960

"... the first task of life is to live. Men begin with acts, not with thoughts. Every moment brings necessities which must be satisfied at once. Need was the first experience, and it was followed at once by a blundering effort to satisfy it." (p. 18)
"... from the first acts by which men try to satisfy needs, each act stands by itself and looks no further than the immediate satisfaction. From recurrent needs arise habits for the individual and customs for the group." "Another long time must pass, and a higher stage of mental development must be reached, before they can be used as a basis from which to deduce rules for meeting, in the future, problems whose pressure can be foreseen." (p. 19)

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			Needs Definitions Classifications Functions Related Concepts : Desire, Drive, Habit, Motive, Requirement, Tendency, Want Classical Quotations

Definitions (^) Henry A. Murray [1938] Explorations in Personality, Oxford University Press, New York "A need is a construct [a convenient fiction or hypothetical concept] which stands for a force [the psycho-chemical nature of which is unknown] in the brain region, a force which organizes perception, apperception, intellection, conation and action in such a way as to transform in a certain direction an existing, unsatisfying situation." (Chapter 2, p. 124) Bronislaw Malinowski [1941] A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays, The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1944 "We can define the concept of basic needs as the environmental and biological conditions which must be fulfilled for the survival of the individual and the group." (Chapter VIII) "We can define the term 'human nature' by the fact that all men have to eat, they have to breathe, to sleep, to procreate and to eliminate waste matter from their organism wherever they live and whatever type of civilization they practice." "By human nature therefore we mean the biological determinism which imposes on every civilization and on all individuals in it the carrying out of such bodily functions as breathing, sleep, rest, nutrition, excretion, and reproduction." (Chapter VIII) Sidney M. Jourard [1958] Personal Adjustment. An Approach through the Study of Healthy Personality, The Macmillan Company, New York "A need is ... a judgment which a person makes concerning what he requires in order to attain some valued end." (p. 59) Julius Gould & William L. Kolb, editors [1964] A Dictionary of the Social Sciences, The Free Press, New York "In psychology the term denotes whatever is required for the health and well-being of a person." "A wider use of this term is sometimes found in personality theory, where it refers to anything a person wants with sufficient consistency over time for this to be treated as a feature of his personality." (p. 462) Peter Davies, editor [1974] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Dell Publishing Co., New York "Need: 1. A state in which something necessary or desirable is required or wanted; 2. A wish for something lacking or desired; 3. Necessity; obligation; 4. Poverty. [1981] Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, Encyclopaedia Britannica, USA "A physiological or psychological requirement for the maintenance of the homeostasis of an organism." Manfred Max-Neef [1989] Development and Human Needs, in Paul Ekins and Manfred Max-Neef, eds., Real-Life Economics, Routledge, London, 1992 "1. First, fundamental human needs are finite, few and classifiable; 2. Second, fundamental human needs are the same in all cultures and in all historical periods. What changes, both over time and through cultures, is the way or the means by which the needs are satisfied." (pp. 199-200) "Whether a person belongs to a consumerist or to an ascetic society, his/her fundamental human needs are the same. What changes is his/her choice of the quantity and quality of satisfiers. In short, what is culturally determined are not the fundamental human needs [i.e. subsistence, protection, etc.], but the satisfiers [i.e. types of food, shelter, etc.] for those needs." (p. 200) Classifications (^) Bronislaw Malinowski [1941] A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays, The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1944 Basic (biological) Needs & Cultural Responses 1. Metabolism : Commissariat (regulation) 2. Reproduction : Kinship 3. Bodily comforts : Shelter 4. Safety : Protection 5. Movement: Activities 6. Growth : Training 7. Health : Hygiene (Chapter X) Ralph Linton [1945] The Cultural Background of Personality, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., London, 1947 "It may be assumed that it is the needs of the individual which provide the motivations for his behavior and which are, through this, responsible for the operation of society and culture." (Chapter I, p. 4) Physiological needs food sleep escape from pain sexual satisfaction Psychic needs emotional response from others long-term security novelty of experience Gardner Murphy [1947] Personality: A Biosocial Approach to Origins and Structure, Harper & Row, New York Four inborn organic needs are assumed to be part of the biological nature of man’s personality. They are as follows: 1. visceral needs : food, water, air, etc. 2. activity needs : exploration and manipulation 3. sensory needs : perceptual clarity in color, tone, rhythm and orientation 4. preservation needs : avoidance of pain, death, threat, shocks, etc. Abraham Maslow [1954] Motivation and Personality, Harper & Row, New York, Second Edition 1970 - The physiological needs (hunger, thirst, sex, etc.) - The safety needs (security, stability, dependency, protection, freedom from fear, from anxiety and chaos; need for structure, order, law, limits) - The belonginess and love needs (freedom from loneliness, ostracism, rejection, friendlessness, rootlessness) - The esteem needs (self esteem : desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for mastery and competence, for confidence in the face of the world and for independence and freedom; esteem of others: desire for reputation or prestige, status, fame and glory, dominance, recognition, attention, importance, dignity, or appreciation) - The self-actualization need : desire for self-fulfillment, namely the tendency for the human being to actualize his/her potentialities. Preconditions for Basic Needs Satisfaction : - freedom to speak; - freedom to do what one wishes so long as no harm is done to others; - freedom to express oneself; - freedom to investigate and seek for information; - freedom to defend oneself; - justice, fairness, honesty, orderliness in the group. Erich Fromm [1956] The Sane Society, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1968 relatedness vs. narcissismus (love) creativeness vs. destructiveness (purposeful transcendence) brotherliness vs. incest (rootedness) individuality vs. herd conformity (sense of identity) reason vs. irrationality (frame of orientation and devotion) Sidney M. Jourard [1958] Personal Adjustment. An Approach through the Study of Healthy Personality, The Macmillan Company, New York - Healthy needs. "Healthy needs contribute to a person’s continued growth toward self-actualization. Whatever a person wants or needs in order more fully to develop his potential individuality must be regarded as a healthy need." (p. 51) - Unhealthy needs. "A need is unhealthy when its gratification does not contribute to the further growth of the person, when it actually prevents further growth." (p. 53) Frederick Herzberg [1968] Work and the Nature of Man, Crosby Lockwood Staples, London 1974 "... the human animal has two categories of needs. One set ... is centered on the avoidance of loss of life, hunger, pain, sexual deprivation and on other primary drives, in addition to the infinite varieties of learned fears that become attached to these basic drives. The other segment of man’s nature ... is man’s compelling urge to realize his own potentiality by continuous psychological growth." (Chapter 4 : The Basic Needs of Man - p. 56) Mario Kamenetzky [1992] The Economics of the Satisfaction of Needs, in Paul Ekins & Manfred Max-Neef, Real-Life Economics, London - Biological needs : a) energy-renewing requirements : nutrition, sleep, excretion; b) energy-balancing requirements : motion, sexual activity. - Bio-psychological needs : clothing, shelter, care and protection of body and mind. - Psychological needs : knowledge, dialogue with the spirit, recreation. - Socio-cultural needs : intellectual, emotional and physical communications, participation, autonomy. (Part II, Section 7 : Human Needs and Aspirations). Functions (^) Bronislaw Malinowski [1941] A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays, The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1944 "Derived Needs (cultural imperatives) & Cultural Responses: 1. Imperative: The cultural apparatus of implements and consumer’s goods must be produced, used, maintained and replaced by new production. Response: Economics. 2. Imperative: Human behavior as regards its technical, customarily, legal, or moral prescription must be codified, regulated in action and sanction. Response: Social control. 3. Imperative: The human material by which every institution is maintained must be renewed, formed, drilled, and provided with full knowledge of tribal tradition. Response: Education. 4. Imperative: Authority within each institution must be defined, equipped with powers, and endowed with means of forceful execution of its orders. Response: Political organization." (Chapter XI) Related Concepts (^) Desire William McDougall [1923] An Outline of Psychology, Methuen & Co., London "Desire in the widest sense may be defined as an impulse directed toward a remote object." "In the narrowest and strictest sense, desire denotes our state when imagination of an object evokes in us an impulse to action, yet action is suspended or prevented by some physical or moral or intellectual difficulty." (p. 207) [1971] Cassell’s Modern Guide to Synonyms & Related Words, London, 1984 "Desire is now the preferred word for suggesting sexual feeling, but it can also refer to any feeling of wanting or needing something." [1974] The American Heritage Dictionary, Dell Publishing Co., New York "Desire: 1. A wish, longing, or craving; 2. A request; 3. Something longed for; 4. Sexual appetite." Drive [1985] Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. IV "In psychology an urgent basic need pressing for satisfaction, usually rooted in some physiological tension, deficiency, or imbalance (e.g. hunger and thirst) and impelling the organism to action. Some researchers have used the term need synonymously, although others distinguish between need as the deprived state and drive as its psychological manifestation (e.g. tension and restless or goal directed activity). Psychologists also distinguish between drives that are innate and directly related to basic physiological needs (e.g. food, air, and water) and drives that are learned (e.g. drug addiction)." Habit William Graham Sumner [1906] Folkways, The New American Library, New York 1960 "... from the first act by which men try to satisfy needs, each act stands by itself, and looks no further than the immediate satisfaction. From recurrent needs arise habits for the individual and customs for the group, but these results are consequences which were never conscious and never foreseen or intended." (p. 19) Motive Fremont E. Kast & James E. Rosenzweig [1970] Organization and Management, McGraw-Hill, Third Edition 1979 "A motive is what prompts a person to act in a certain way or at least develop a propensity for specific behavior." (p. 244) "People are motivated to expend effort if they believe that there is a reasonable probability that their effort will accomplish a desired outcome and that the outcome will be followed by intrinsic and/or extrinsic rewards that lead to satisfaction." (p. 246) [1971] Cassell’s Modern Guide to Synonyms & Related Words, London, 1984 "Motive connotes some impulse within a person - such as love, hate, revenge, or ambition - that impels him to act with a strong sense of purpose." [1974] The American Heritage Dictionary, Dell Publishing Co., New York "Motive: 1. An impulse acting as an incitement to action." Requirement Keith Hanson [1969] in, Geoffrey Broadbent & Anthony Ward eds., Design Methods in Architecture, Architectural Association Paper nº 14, Lund Humphries, London "A requirement is a situation that must be present otherwise an observable human or social need would go unsatisfied. Most requirements are dependent in their solutions on other requirements. Any two requirements that would either help or hinder one another in solution therefore interact and need to be thought of together if a satisfactory solution is to be found for both." (p. 37) Tendency Barry Poyner [1969] in, Geoffrey Broadbent & Anthony Ward eds., Design Methods in Architecture, Architectural Association Paper nº 14, Lund Humphries, London "If we accept the traditional concept of need, we have no way of telling if a need is true or false." "We don’t have this difficulty with a tendency. A tendency is a statement of what people are actively trying to do. It is a statement which is either true or false. Either people are trying to do it or they are not." (p. 32) Want Victor Papanek [1971] Design for the Real World, Paladin, England, 1977 "Designing for the people’s needs rather than for their wants, or artificially created wants, is the only meaningful direction now." (p. 163) [1974] The American Heritage Dictionary, Dell Publishing Co., New York "Want: 1. The condition or quality of lacking a usual or necessary amount; 2. Pressing need; 3. Something needed; 4. A fault." "To want: 1. To fail to have; lack; 2. To desire; wish for; 3. To need or require; 4a. To request the presence of; 4b. To seek with intent to capture." Classical Quotations (^) Henri David Thoreau [1854] Walden, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1960 "By the words, necessary of life, I mean whatever, of all that man obtains by his own exertions, has been from the first, or from long use has become, so important to human life that few, if any, whether from savageness, or poverty, or philosophy, ever attempt to do without it." "The necessaries of life for man in this climate may, accurately enough, be distributed under the several heads of Food, Shelter, Clothing, and Fuel; for not till we have secured these are we prepared to entertain the true problems of life with freedom and a prospect of success." (p. 7) Karl Marx [1875] Critique of the Gotha Programme "In a higher phase of communist society, after the enslaving subordination of individuals under division of labour, and therewith also the antithesis between mental and physical labour, has vanished; after labour, from a mere means of life, has itself become the prime necessity of life; after the productive forces have also increased with the all-round development of the individual, and all the springs of co-operative wealth flow more abundantly - only then can the narrow horizon of bourgeois right be fully left behind and society inscribe on its banners : from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs." William Graham Sumner [1906] Folkways. A Study of the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores and Morals, Mentor Books, New York 1960 "... the first task of life is to live. Men begin with acts, not with thoughts. Every moment brings necessities which must be satisfied at once. Need was the first experience, and it was followed at once by a blundering effort to satisfy it." (p. 18) "... from the first acts by which men try to satisfy needs, each act stands by itself and looks no further than the immediate satisfaction. From recurrent needs arise habits for the individual and customs for the group." "Another long time must pass, and a higher stage of mental development must be reached, before they can be used as a basis from which to deduce rules for meeting, in the future, problems whose pressure can be foreseen." (p. 19)

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