Texts
- The Problem of Learning
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- Corso su Problemistica
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Problemistics - Problémistique - Problemistica
The Art & Craft of Problem Dealing
Ideation
Idea (John Dewey)
Thinking (John Dewey)
Reflective thinking (John Dewey)
Stages of thinking (John Dewey)
Stages of thought (Graham Wallas)
Creative thinking (Eugene Von Frange)
Creative thinking (Arthur Koestler)
Critical thinking (John Dewey)
Thinking capacities (Alex F. Osborn)
Creative associations (Alex F. Osborn)
Requirements fir imagination (Alex F. Osborn)
Idea-finding (Alex F. Osborn)
Discovery (Alfred North Whitehead)
Brainstorming (The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought)
Brainstorming (Alex F. Osborn)
Brainstorming (Nigel Cross and Robin Roy)
Rules for brainstorming (Alex F. Osborn)
Checklist for brainstorming (Alex F. Osborn)
Brainstorming questions (Alex F. Osborn)
Synectics (William J. J. Gordon)
Synectics (Geoffrey Broadbent)
Synectics characteristics (William J. J. Gordon)
Synectics process (William J. J. Gordon)
Synectics analogies (William J. J. Gordon)
[1991, First Published 1910] John Dewey, How We Think, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, New York
“An idea is a meaning that is tentatively entertained, formed, and used with reference to its fitness to decide a perplexing situation, - a meaning used as a tool of judgment” (p. 108)
“Ideas are not ... genuine ideas unless they are tools in a reflective examination which tends to solve a problem.” (p. 109)
[1991, First Published 1910] John Dewey, How We Think, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, New York
Elements of thinking:
“(a) a state of perplexity, hesitation, doubt;
(b) an act of search or investigation directed toward bringing to light further facts which serve to corroborate or to nullify the suggested belief.” (p. 9)
“Thinking begins in what may fairly enough be called a forked-road situation, a situation which is ambiguous, which presents a dilemma, which proposes alternatives.” (p. 11)
“Demand for the solution of a perplexity is the steadying and guiding factor in the entire process of reflection.” (p. 11)
“The problem fixes the end of thought and the end controls the process of thinking.” (p. 12)
[1991, First Published 1910] John Dewey, How We Think, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, New York
“Active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends, constitutes reflective thought.” (p. 6)
“Reflection ... implies that something is believed in (or disbelieved in) not on its own direct account, but through something else which stands as witness, evidence, proof, voucher, warrant; that is, as ground of belief.” (p. 8)
“Thinking involves the suggestion of a conclusion for acceptance, and also search or inquiry to test the value of the suggestion before finally accepting it. This implies:
(a) a certain fund or store of experiences and facts from which suggestions proceed;
(b) promptness, flexibility, and fertility of suggestions; and
(c) orderliness, consecutiveness, appropriateness in what is suggested.” (p. 30)
[1991, First Published 1910] John Dewey, How We Think, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, New York
Five logically distinct steps in reflective thinking:
"(i) a felt difficulty" (perplexity or problem)."
"(ii) its location and definition"
"(iii) suggestion of possible solution"
“Suggestion is the very heart of inference; it involves going from what is present to something absent.” “The suggested conclusion so far as it is not accepted but only tentatively entertained constitutes an idea.”
"(iv) development by reasoning of the bearings [i.e. implications] of the suggestion"
"(v) further observation and experiment leading to its acceptance or rejection; that is, the conclusion of belief or disbelief.”
“The concluding and conclusive step is some kind of experimental corroboration, or verification, of the conjectural idea.” (Chapter 6, pp. 72-77)
[1936] Graham Wallas, The Art of Thought
- Preparation: "the stage during which the problem [is] investigated... in all directions." (p. 80)
- Incubation: "the stage when [someone is] not consciously thinking about the problem." (p. 80)
- Illumination: "the appearance of the 'happy idea' with the psychological events which immediately preceded and accompanied the appearance." (p. 80)
- Verification: "in which both the validity of the idea [is] tested, and the idea itself is reduced to exact form." (p. 81)
[1959] Eugene Von Frange, Professional Creativity
“We think only when we wish to achieve a conclusion that, by implication, did not exist before. Thus, the thinking itself requires the generation and appraisal of new associations.” (p. 25)
“In their study of ideas and mental picture formation, the early Greeks concluded that we achieve new combinations through association and because of similarity, contrast, or contiguity (proximity or nearness).” (p. 41)
[1967] Arthur Koestler, The Ghost in the Machine
“The Latin cogito comes from coagitare, to shake together. Bisociation means combining two hitherto unrelated cognitive matrices in such a way that a new level is added to the hierarchy, which contains the previously separate structures as its members.” (Chapter XIII, p. 183)
[1991, First Published 1910] John Dewey, How We Think, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, New York
“... the most important factor in the training of good mental habits consists in acquiring the attitude of suspended conclusion, and in mastering the various methods of searching for new materials to corroborate or to refute the first suggestions that occur.” (p. 13)
“The essence of critical thinking is suspended judgment; and the essence of this suspense is inquiry to determine the nature of the problem before proceeding to attempts at its solution.” (p. 74)
[1963, First Published 1953] Alex F. Osborn, Applied Imagination
“From a functional standpoint our mental capacities might be over-simplified as follows:
- 1. Absorptive - the ability to observe, and to apply attention.
- 2. Retentive - the ability to memorize and to recall.
- 3. Reasoning - the ability to analyse and to judge.
- 4. Creative - the ability to visualize, to foresee, and to generate ideas.”
(Chapter I, p. 1)
[1963, First Published 1953] Alex F. Osborn, Applied Imagination
"The ancient Greeks laid down as the three laws of association: contiguity, similarity, and contrast." (Chapter IX, p. 114)
- Contiguity (e.g. sequence, cause and effect)
“This is next to what?”; “What does this go with?”; “What happens before or after? ; “This is smaller than what, or larger than what?” “What would cause this effect?”
- Similarity (e.g. likeness, sameness, composition, common factor)
“What is this like?”; “What attribute has this in common with that?”; “Isn’t this the same as that?” ; “What about the component parts ?”
- Contrast (e.g. difference)
“What is this unlike?”; “What is the point of difference?”; “What about the opposite?”; “How about vice versa?” (from Chapter VIII, p. 108)
[1963, First Published 1953] Alex F. Osborn, Applied Imagination
“Production of ideas depends upon the contents of your mind and how you ‘mix’ these ingredients.” (Chapter IX, p. 113)
“Now it is realized that you can deliberately increase production of good ideas by following two basic principles:
1. Deferment of Judgment: You can think up almost twice as many good ideas (in the same length of time) if you defer judgment until after you have created an adequate check-list of possible leads to solution.
2. Quantity breeds Quality: The more ideas you think up, the more likely you are to arrive at the potentially best leads to solution. Some scientists refer to tentative leads to solution as 'hypotheses'.” (Chapter X, p. 124)
[1963, First Published 1953] Alex F. Osborn, Applied Imagination
“Individual idea-finding effort can be more productive if done deliberately and methodically. For one thing the problem should be clearly defined. The simplest way to do this is to state the general problem on paper, make a written list of its component phases, and then select the sub-problem or sub-problems most suitable for creative attack.” (Chapter XI, p. 141)
“The ideal methodology for idea-finding is a triple attack:
(1) Individual ideation
(2) Group brainstorming
(3) Individual ideation.” (Chapter XIII, p. 191)
[1929] Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality
“The true method of discovery is like the flight of an aeroplane. It starts from the ground of particular observation; it makes a flight in the thin air of imaginative generalization; and it again lands for renewed observation rendered acute by rational interpretation.” (Chapter I, section II, p. 5)
[1988] The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought
“An American experiment in group Problem Solving that attempts to elicit creative thinking and new ideas through intensive discussion.
The atmosphere of these sessions is non-critical, and free association and ‘thinking aloud’ are encouraged.”
[1963, First Published 1953] Alex F. Osborn, Applied Imagination
"Aim: To stimulate a group of people to produce many ideas quickly.”
"Outline
1. Select a group of people to produce ideas.
2. Enforce the rule that no idea is to be criticized and make it clear that wild ideas are welcome, quantity is wanted and that participants should try to combine, or to improve upon, the ideas suggested by others.
3. Record the ideas put forward and evaluate them afterwards."
Note: "The most sensible attitude to brainstorming is to recognize it as an extremely fast way of generating the requisite variety with which the serious search for a solution should begin." (Method 4.1, pp. 274-275)
[1975] Nigel Cross and Robin Roy, Design Methods Manual
Brainstorming: “A group participation technique for quickly generating a wide range of ideas for tackling a stated problem.”
Procedure
(1) Formulate a problem statement (avoid too vague or too restrictive problem statements).
(2) Select the group of people to participate in the session (the group should preferably include some people conversant with the problem area; small group, about 4-8 people, are best).
(3) Allow 5-10 minutes for group members to write down their first ideas in response to the problem statement (use small record cards, with one idea expressed briefly on each card).
(4) Encourage group members to continue writing down new ideas, whilst each person in turn reads out one idea from his/her set.
The session rules are:
(a) no criticism is allowed of any idea.
(b) crazy ideas are quite welcome.
(c) a large quantity of ideas is wanted.
(d) try to combine and improve on the ideas of others.
(e) evaluate the ideas after the session."
Positive aspect of brainstorming: “people’s ideas often trigger off new ideas in your own head.”
Aspect to be carefully considered: "the wording of the question or problem- statement which is used as the starting point for a brainstorm can be quite important. If the problem is stated too narrowly, then the resulting range of solution areas will perhaps be rather limited. On the other hand, stating a very vague problem will encourage equally vague ideas." (Brainstorming, pp. 81-84)
[1963, First Edition 1953 ] Alex F. Osborn, Applied Imagination
“(1) Criticism is ruled out. Adverse judgment of ideas must be withheld until later.
(2) ‘Free-wheeling’ is welcomed. The wilder the idea, the better; it is easier to tame down than to think up.
(3) Quantity is wanted. The greater the number of ideas, the more the likelihood of useful ideas.
(4) Combination and improvement are sought. In addition to contributing ideas of their own, participants should suggest how ideas of others can be turned into better ideas or how two or more ideas can be joined into still another idea.” (Chapter XII, p. 156)
[1963, First Edition 1953 ] Alex F. Osborn, Applied Imagination
Check - list to aid ideation:
- Recycling : Put to Other Uses? New ways to use as is? Other uses if modified?
- Adaptation : Adapt? What else is like this? What other ideas does this suggest?
- Modification : Modify: Change meaning, colour, motion, sound, odor, taste, form, shape? Other changes?
- Addition/Multiplication : Magnify? What to add? Greater frequency? (more often) Stronger? Higher? Longer? Larger? Thicker? Plus ingredient? Extra features? Extra value? Multiply?
- Subtraction/Division : Minify? What to subtract? (fewer parts) Eliminate? (simplify) Smaller? Lighter? Slower? Split up? Less frequent?
- Substitution : Substitute? Who else instead? What else instead? Other ingredient? Other material? Other process? Other approach? Other place? Other time?
- Rearrangement : Rearrange? Other pattern? Other layout? Other sequence? Transpose cause and effect? Change pace? Change schedule?
- Reversal : Reverse? Opposites? Transpose positive and negative? Turn it backward? Turn it upside down? Turn it inside out? Reverse roles?
- Combination : Combine? How about a blend, an alloy, an assortment? (an ensemble) Combine purposes? Combine ideas? Combine units?
(from Chapter XIII, pp. 175-176 and Chapter XVII, pp. 243-288)
[1963, First Edition 1953 ] Alex F. Osborn, Applied Imagination
"First you isolate the subject or problem you want to think about. Then you ask a series of questions about each step in that subject or problem."
“(1) Why is it necessary?
(2) Where should it be done?
(3) When should it be done?
(4) Who should do it?
(5) What should be done?
(6) How should it be done?
(7) What about ...?
(8) What if ...?
(9) What else?”
(Chapter XVI, p. 230)
[1970, First Published 1961] William J. J. Gordon, Synectics
“The word Synectics, from the Greek, means the joining together of different and apparently irrelevant elements. Synectics theory applies to the integration of diverse individuals into a problem-stating, problem-solving group. It is an operational theory for the conscious use of the preconscious psychological mechanisms present in man’s creative activity. The purpose of developing such a theory is to increase the probability of success in problem-stating, problem-solving situations.” (Introduction, p. 3)
[1988, First edition 1973] Geoffrey Broadbent, Design in Architecture. Architecture and the Human Sciences, David Fulton Publishers, London
“Synectics too was conceived as a group activity but, unlikely brainstorming, does not rely on the chance build-up of streams of associations within the group. Instead of that, it focusses with some precision on an area in which associations probably will be generated by a system of analogies and metaphors.”
(Chapter 17, pp 349-350)
[1970, First Published 1961] William J. J. Gordon, Synectics
“Synectics theory holds that:
(i) creative efficiency in people can be markedly increased if they understand the psychological process by which they operate;
(ii) in creative process the emotional component is more important than the intellectual, the irrational more important than the rational;
(iii) it is these emotional, irrational elements which can and must be understood in order to increase the probability of success in a problem-solving situation.” (p. 7)
“Ultimate solutions to problems are rational; the process of finding them is not.” (p. 11)
“To achieve radical new approaches to old problems it is essential to take ‘psychological chances’, to abandon familiar ways of looking at things, even to transcend one’s image of oneself.” (p. 11)
[1970, First Published 1961] William J. J. Gordon, Synectics
“The Synectic process involves:
(i) making the strange familiar." “In any problem-stating, problem-solving situation, the first responsibility of individuals involved is to understand the problem.” “It is the function of the mind, when presented with a problem, to attempt to make the strange familiar by means of analysis.” “The mind compares the given strangeness with data previously known and in terms of these data converts the strangeness into familiarity.” (pp. 34-35)
(ii) making the familiar strange. “To make the familiar strange is to distort, invert, or transpose the everyday ways of looking and responding which render the world a secure and familiar place.” “It is the conscious attempt to achieve a new look at the same old world, people, ideas, feelings, and things.” (pp. 35-36)
[1970, First Published 1961] William J. J. Gordon, Synectics
“Synectics has identified four mechanisms for making the familiar strange, each metaphorical in character:
(i) "Personal Analogy" (personal identification with the elements of a problem; e.g. the chemist may identify him/herself with the molecules in action).
(ii) "Direct Analogy" (application of methods/processes taken from other fields; e.g. “Sir March Isumbard Brunel solved the problem of underwater construction by watching a shipworm tunnelling into a timber. The worm constructed a tube for itself as it moved forward, and the classical notion of caissons came to Brunel by Direct Analogy”).
(iii) "Symbolic Analogy" (transposition of words into mental images to represent the elements of a problem and play with these images).
(iv) "Fantasy Analogy" (expression of wishes, desires, fantasies that play freely and wildly in the research of a solution.
(from Chapter 2, pp. 37-53)