Texts
- The Problem of Learning
- Problemistics Courseware
- Corso su Problemistica
- Resources Management
- Manuale/Intellettuale
- Campagna/Città
Problemistics - Problémistique - Problemistica
The Art & Craft of Problem Dealing
Means
Planning and Means-Ends
Decision and Means-Ends
Organization and Means-Ends
Limitations of Means-Ends
Means-Ends Chain-Continuum
[1973] Banfield, Edward, C., Ends and Means in Planning, in Faludi, Andreas, "A Reader in Planning Theory", Pergamon Press, Oxford
"An actor (who may be a person or an organization) is considered as being oriented towards the attainment of ends. Planning is the process by which he selects a course of action (a set of means) for the attainment of his ends. It is ‘good’ planning if these means are likely to attain the ends or maximize the chances of their attainment. It is by the process of rational choice that the best adaptation of means to ends is likely to be achieved." (p. 139)
[1965, first Edition 1945] Simon, Herbert A., Administrative Behavior, The Free Press, New York
"... the correctness of an administrative decision is a relative matter - it is correct if it selects appropriate means to reach designated ends." (p. 61)
"In the process of decision those alternatives are chosen which are considered to be appropriate means for reaching desired ends. Ends themselves, however, are often merely instrumental to more final objectives. We are thus led to the conception of a series, or hierarchy, of ends. Rationality has to do with the construction of means-ends chains of this kind." (p. 62)
[1973] Sofer, Cyril, Organizations in Theory and Practice, Heinemann, London
"It is the deliberate adoption of means to ends which is the essence of formal organization." (p. 163 - from Chester Barnard "The Functions of the Executive" p. 186)
[1965, first Edition 1945] Simon, Herbert A., Administrative Behavior, The Free Press, New York
"First, the ends to be attained by the choice of a particular behavior alternative are often incompletely or incorrectly stated through failure to consider the alternative ends that could be reached by selection of another behavior.
Second, in actual situations a complete separation of means from ends is usually impossible, for the alternative means are not usually valuationally neutral.
Third, the means-end terminology tends to obscure the role of the time element in decision-making."
"Choice imposes two problems:
- a) If a particular end is to be realized at a given time, what alternative ends must be relinquished for that time?
- b) If a particular end is to be realized at a given time, how does this limit the ends that may be realized at other times?" (p. 65)
[1965, first Edition 1945] Simon, Herbert A., Administrative Behavior, The Free Press, New York
"It is clear that the ‘means-end’ distinction does not correspond to the distinction between fact and value." "Any element in this chain may be either ‘means’ or ‘end’ depending on whether its connection with the value end of the chain, or its connection with the behavior end of the chain, is in question." (p. 74)
[1973] Paul Davidoff & Thomas A. Reiner, A Choice Theory of Planning in Faludi, Andreas ed. "A Reader in Planning Theory", Pergamon Press, Oxford
"The most general end and the most specific means represent extreme points along a continuum. The task of deducing from a value the tools for its implementation is not a one-step operation. A particular program may serve either as a means or as an end, depending on its relation to other values, programs, or tasks, and depending on the perspectives of the relevant individuals." (p. 30)
[1968] René Dubos in Jantsch, Eric ed. Perspectives of Planning, OECD, 1968
"In all human societies that retain their dynamism, means and ends are in constant interaction and form an uninterrrupted continuum." (p. 174)