Texts
- The Problem of Learning
- Problemistics Courseware
- Corso su Problemistica
- Resources Management
- Manuale/Intellettuale
- Campagna/Città
Problemistics - Problémistique - Problemistica
The Art & Craft of Problem Dealing
Systems
Definition (Reference Books)
Definition (Condillac)
Definition (Ludwig van Bertalanffy)
Definition (C. West Churchman)
Definition (Brian J. McLoughlin)
Definition (Arthur D. Hall)Classification (Donald Archie)
Classification (John Beishon)
Classification (Stafford Beer)
Classification (Kenneth Boulding)Environment (Arthur D. Hall)
Environment (C. West Churchman)
Environment (Russell Ackoff and Fred Emery)
Boundaries (Fremont E. Kast and James E. Rosenzweig)Characteristics of open systems (Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn)
Openness of a system (Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn)
Aspects of complex systems (Jay W. Forrester)
Reference Books
[1914] The Encyclopaedic Dictionary (Cassel & Company)
“1. A combination or assemblage of things adjusted into a regular and connected whole; a number of things or parts so connected and arranged as to make one complex thing; things connected according to a scheme; as a system of canals or railways, a system of forces acting upon a body.”
“2. An assemblage of parts or organs in an animal body which are composed of the same tissue or are essentially necessary to the performance of some function: as the nervous system, the vascular system, etc.”
“5. A plan or scheme according to which things are connected or combined into a whole; an assemblage of facts, or principles and conclusions scientifically arranged or disposed according to certain mutual relations, so as to form a complete whole: as a system of philosophy, a system of government, etc.”
“6. Method, order, regularity: as, He has no system in his business.”
[1983] The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
“I. An organized or connected group of objects.”
“1. A set or assemblage of things connected, associated or interdependent, so as to form a complex unity; a whole composed of parts in orderly arrangement according to some scheme or plan; rarely applied to a simple or small assemblage of things.”
“4. In various scientific and technical uses: A group, set, or aggregate of things, natural or artificial, forming a connected or complex whole.”
[1974] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
“1. A group of interrelated elements forming a collective entity;
2. The human body regarded as a functional physiological unit;
3. A network, as for communication, travel or distribution;
4. A set of interrelated ideas, principles, rules, procedures, laws, etc.;
5. A social, economic, or political organizational form;
6. The state or condition of harmonious, orderly interaction.”
Books
[1749] Condillac, Traité des Systèmes
"Un système n'est autre chose que la disposition des différentes parties d'un art ou d'une science dans un ordre où elles se soutiennent toutes mutuellement et où les dernières s'appliquent par les premières.
Celles qui rendent raison des autres s'appellent principes, et le système est d'autant plus parfait que les principes sont en plus petit nombre : il est même à souhaiter qu'on les réduise à un seul." (Chapter 1, p. 1)
[1968] Ludwig van Bertalanffy, General System Theory
“A system can be defined as a set of elements standing in interrelation among themselves and with environment.” (Chapter 3, p. 90)
C. West Churchman, The Systems Approach
“Systems are made up of sets of components that work together for the overall objective of the whole.” (p. 11)
“... all definers will agree that a system is a set of parts coordinated to accomplish a set of goals.” (p. 29)
[1973, First Edition 1969] J. Brian McLoughlin, Urban and Regional Planning
“We can attempt to define the system ... by identifying the parts or components on the one hand and the connections or interactions [links, channels, relations] on the other.” (p. 77)
“... a system is not the real world, but a way of looking at it. Definitions of systems therefore depend in part on the purposes and objectives for which they are to be used.” (p. 79)
[1973] Arthur D. Hall in Stanford L. Optner (editor), Systems Analysis
“A system is a set of objects with relationships between the objects and between their attributes.”
“Objects are simply the parts or components of a system, and these parts are unlimited in variety.”
“Attributes are properties of objects.”
“Relationships tie the system together.”
(“Some Fundamental Concepts of System Engineering”, p. 104)
[1979] Donald, Archie, Management Information and Systems
A classification of viewpoints and system variables :
- Mode of Composition : existing in nature (in balance) - designed and constructed (goal-seeking)
- Environment contact and boundary permeability : closed - open
- Complexity : simple - complex - exceedingly complex
- System Stymulus : reactive - proactive - impactive
- Control : Open-loop - closed-loop (feedback control) - feedforward of information
- Predictability of Change : static framework - deterministic system - probabilistic - adaptive
- Reaction to change : stable - unstable
- Final state tending towards : equilibrium (run-down) - homeostasis (tension)
(from Table 2, pag. 20)
[1971] John Beishon, Systems
Discrete vs. Continuous (in relation to the states of the system)
Deterministic vs. Probabilistic (in relation to the changes of the system)
Open vs. Closed (in relation to the environment around the system)
Hard vs. Soft (in relation to the components of the system)
(from Section 6, pp. 24-29)
[1959] Stafford Beer, Cybernetics and Management
Main criteria of classification
- Simple vs Complex
- Deterministic vs. Probabilistic
Mixing of criteria
- Simple deterministic. e.g. a window catch
- Complex deterministic. e.g. planetary system
- Simple probabilistic. e.g. a tossing of a penny.
- Complex probabilistic. e.g. stockholding
- Exceedingly complex deterministic. Empty category
- Exceedingly complex probabilistic. e.g. the brain.
(from Chapter II, pp. 12-19)
[1970] Kenneth E. Boulding, Beyond Economics
Classification according to the level of complexity of a system :
- static structure (e.g. pattern of atoms in a molecular formula, maps of the earth)
- simple dynamic (predetermined motions e.g. clockworks)
- control mechanism (simple cybernetic systems e.g. thermostat)
- self-maintaining system (open system, e.g. cell; ingestion, excretion and metabolic exchange)
- genetic level (e.g. plant life)
- animal system level
- human level (individual)
- human social systems organization (individual’s role)
- transcendental systems (conceptual constructs)
(originally published as "General Systems Theory : the skeleton of science" in "Management Science", April 1956, pp. 197-208)
[1973] Arthur D. Hall in Stanford L. Optner (editor), Systems Analysis
“For a given system, the environment is the set of all objects outside the system: (1) a change in whose attributes affects the system and (2) whose attributes are changed by the behaviour of the system.”
(“Some Fundamental Concepts of System Engineering”, p. 104)
C. West Churchman, The Systems Approach
“The environment of the system is what lies ‘outside’ of the system.” (p. 35)
“... when we say that something lies ‘outside’ the system, we mean that the system can do relatively little about its characteristics or its behavior. Environment, in effect, makes up the things and people that are ‘fixed’ or ‘given’, from the system’s point of view.” (p. 36)
“Not only is the environment something that is outside the system’s control, but it is also something that determines in part how the system performs.” (p. 36)
“The environment is not the air we breathe, or the social group we belong to, or the house we live in, no matter how much these may seem to be outside us. In each case, we must ask, “Can I do anything about it?” and “Does it matter relative to my objectives?” If the answer to the first question is “No”, but to the second is “Yes”, then “it” is in the environment.” (pp. 36-37)
[1972] Russell L. Ackoff and Fred E. Emery, On Purposeful Systems
“Environment of a system : a set of elements and their relevant properties, which elements are not part of the system, but a change in any of which can cause or produce a change in the state of the system.” (p. 19)
[1979] Fremont E. Kast and James E. Rosenzweig, Organization and Management
“The concept of boundaries helps one understand the distinction between open and closed systems. The relatively closed system has rigid, impenetrable boundaries, whereas the open system has permeable boundaries between itself and a broader suprasystem.” “Boundaries are relatively easily defined in physical and biological systems - they are visible.” “Organizations have no clearly observable boundaries and are open to many inputs and outputs.” (p. 127)
“Organizational boundaries screen the inputs and outputs. In this sense, the boundaries are barriers to the flow of energy, material, and information. This is a vital function of boundaries because it would be impossible for any organization to deal with all possible inputs.” “Boundaries also filter the outputs of the organization.”
(p. 128)
"The individual organisation ... must have a certain amount of independence from environmental intrusion in order to carry out its transformation functions efficiently. The filtering and buffering functions of the organisational boundary are important in maintaining this autonomy." (p. 129)
[1978] Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn, The Social Psychology of Organizations
The following ten characteristics seem to define all open systems :
- 1. Input (importation of energy)
- 2. Throughput (transformation of energy)
- 3. Output (exportation of energy)
- 4. Systems as cycles of events (cyclic character of activities)
- 5. Negative entropy (capable of producing order and organization)
- 6. Negative feedback (to correct deviations from course)
- 7. The steady state (dynamic homeostasis)
- 8. Differentiation (differentiation and elaboration)
- 9. Integration and Coordination
- 10. Equifinality
(from Chapter 2, pp. 23-30)
[1978] Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn, The Social Psychology of Organizations
“There is a duality in the concept of open system; the concept implies openness, but it also implies system properties, stable patterns of relationships and behaviour within boundaries. Complete openness to the environment means loss of those properties; the completely open organization would no longer be differentiated from its environment and would cease to exist as a distinct system.
The organization lives only by being open to inputs but selectively; it continuing existence requires both the property of openness and of selectivity.”
(Chapter 2, p. 31)